File Attributes

Each file is stored in a directory, and uses a directory entry that describes its characteristics such as its name and size. The directory entry also contains a pointer to where the file is stored on disk. One of the characteristics stored for each file is a set of file attributes that give the operating system and application software more information about the file and how it is intended to be used.

The use of attributes is "voluntary". What this means is that any software program can look in the directory entry to discern the attributes of a file, and based on them, make intelligent decisions about how to treat the file. For example, a file management program's delete utility, seeing a file marked as a read-only system file, would be well-advised to at least warn the user before deleting it. However, it doesn't have to. Any programmer that knows what it is doing can override the attributes of a file, and certainly, the writers of viruses do this as a matter of course!

That said, most operating systems assign definite meanings to the attributes stored for files, and will alter their behavior according to what they see. If at a DOS prompt you type "DIR" to list the files in the directory, by default you will not see any files that have the "hidden" attribute set. You have to type "DIR /AH" to see the hidden files.

A file can have more than one attribute attached to it, although only certain combinations really make any sense. The attributes are stored in a single byte, with each bit of the byte representing a specific attribute (actually, only six bits are used of the eight in the byte). Each bit that is set to a one means that the file has that attribute turned on. (These are sometimes called attribute bits or attribute flags). This method is a common way that a bunch of "yes/no" parameters are stored in computers to save space. The following are the attributes and the bits they use in the attribute byte:

Attribute	Bit Code
Read-Only	00000001
Hidden	00000010
System	00000100
Volume Label	00001000
Directory	00010000
Archive	00100000

The attribute bits are summed to form the attribute byte. So, the attribute byte for a hidden, read-only directory would be 00010011, which is simply the codes for those three attributes from the table above, added together. Here is a more detailed description of what these attributes mean (or more accurately, how they are normally used). Note that each of the attributes below apply equally to files and directories (except for the directory attribute of course!):

• Read-Only: Most software, when seeing a file marked read-only, will refuse to delete or modify it. This is pretty straight-forward. For example, DOS will say "Access denied" if you try to delete a read-only file. On the other hand, Windows Explorer will happily munch it. Some will choose the middle ground: they will let you modify or delete the file, but only after asking for confirmation.
• Hidden: This one is pretty self-explanatory as well; if the file is marked hidden then under normal circumstances it is hidden from view. DOS will not display the file when you type "DIR" unless a special flag is used, as shown in the earlier example.
• System: This flag is used to tag important files that are used by the system and should not be altered or removed from the disk. In essence, this is like a "more serious" read-only flag and is for the most part treated in this manner.
• Volume Label: Every disk volume can be assigned an identifying label, either when it is formatted, or later through various tools such as the DOS command "LABEL". The volume label is stored in the root directory as a file entry with the label attribute set.
• Directory: This is the bit that differentiates between entries that describe files and those that describe subdirectories within the current directory. In theory you can convert a file to a directory by changing this bit. Of course in practice, trying to do this would result in a mess--the entry for a directory has to be in a specific format.
• Archive: This is a special bit that is used as a "communications link" between software applications that modify files, and those that are used for backup. Most backup software allows the user to do an incremental backup, which only selects for backup any files that have changed since the last backup. This bit is used for this purpose. When the backup software backs up ("archives") the file, it clears the archive bit (makes it zero). Any software that modifies the file subsequently, is supposed to set the archive bit. Then, the next time that the backup software is run, it knows by looking at the archive bits which files have been modified, and therefore which need to be backed up. Again, this use of the bit is "voluntary"; the backup software relies on other software to use the archive bit properly; some programs could modify the file without setting the archive attribute, but fortunately most software is "well-behaved" and uses the bit properly. Still, you should not rely on this mechanism absolutely to ensure that your critical files are backed up.

Other's version available

RTM or RTW

The term "release to manufacturing" (RTM) is used by Microsoft and others to indicate when the production version has been sent to a product manufacturer, in preparation for physical distribution (e.g., DVDs/CDs in retail boxes). RTM can also refer to online distribution, though the term "release to Web" (RTW) is usually used in this context. Typically, RTM happens weeks or months before a public release because of the time needed to produce boxed copies of the product and send them through retail distribution channels.

GA

General Availibility (GA) is used as a synonym for release to manufacturing.

Box copy

A box copy is a physical version of the final product, printed on a disc that is complete with disc graphic art. This term is used mostly by reviewers to differentiate from other forms of the released product (e.g., a downloaded copy). A box copy does not necessarily come enclosed in a box; it refers to the disc itself.

Stable or unstable

In open source programming, version numbers or the terms stable and unstable commonly distinguish the stage of development. The term stable refers to a version of software that is substantially identical to a version that has been through enough real-world testing to reasonably assume there are no showstopper problems, or at least that any problems are known and documented. On the other hand, the term unstable does not necessarily mean that there are problems - rather, that enhancements or changes have been made to the software that have not undergone rigorous testing and that more changes are expected to be imminent. Users of such software are advised to use the stable version if it meets their needs, and to only use the unstable version if the new functionality is of interest that exceeds the risk that something might simply not work right.

In the Linux kernel, version numbers are composed of three numbers, separated by a period. Between versions 1.0.0 and 2.6.x, stable releases had an even second number and unstable release an odd one. As of Linux 2.6.x, the even or odd status of the second number no longer holds any significance. The practice of using even and odd numbers to indicate the stability of a release has been used by other open and closed source projects.

32-Bit Computing: What's It All About?

What Does 32-bit Mean?

A binary digit, or bit, is the smallest unit of data that a computer
can process. All other things being equal, the more bits your computer
can process at the same time, the faster it is.

Most desktop computers manipulate bits in groups of 16 or 32. If you
have two computers whose clock (processing) speed is identical, and one
processes 32 bits at a time while the other processes 16, the 32-bit
computer will be about twice as fast.

Advantages

One advantage of 32-bit systems is speedier processing for resource-
hungry applications such as math packages, graphics and publishing
programs, and network operations.

In addition, when a machine's internal addressing scheme uses 32
bits, it can address much larger amounts of memory and hard disk space.

Yet another advantage of 32-bit systems is faster multitasking, where
two or more applications run at the same time. An operating system
performs multi-tasking by sending different parts of many tasks to the
CPU at different times. Of course, the faster the system, the less
likely it is that the user will notice what's going on behind the
scenes.

what is Volume License Key (VLK)?

Volume License key (VLK) is a term used by some computer software companies to denote the product key used when installing software licensed under volume licensing, which allows a single product key to be used for multiple installations. This form of licensing is typically used in business, government, and educational institutions, with prices for volume licensing varying depending on the type, quantity and applicable subscription term. For example, Microsoft software available through volume licensing programs includes Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008, Microsoft Office 2007 and many others.

Volume Activation 2.0

Starting with Windows Vista, VLKs have been replaced with Multiple Activation Keys (MAK) or Key Management Server (KMS) keys. MAK Activation may occur independently (by means of connection to Microsoft through internet or telephone activation) or through a proxy using Microsoft's Volume Activation Tool (VAMT). Hosts activated via a KMS have to report back to that key server once every 180 days.

Do you want to see what is going on behind the Windows XP splash screen ?

Do you want to see what is going on behind the Windows XP and 2000 splash screens? When Windows first starts up it displays a screen with the Windows logo known as the splash screen. To see what is going one behind it use notepad to edit the C:\boot.ini file (to see the file listed, you may need to set your Windows Explorer, Tools, Folder Options, View to see hidden files and folders, and to unhide protected system files). You'll see a line that looks similar to this:

multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINNT="Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional" /fastdetect

Add a space and /SOS to the end of the line so it looks like this:

multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINNT="Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional" /fastdetect /SOS

The boot.ini file can also be edited in Windows XP by right-clicking My Computer, Properties, Advanced, Startup and Recovery, Edit.

what is OEM ?

What is OEM ?

OEM stands for Original Equipment Manufacturer. OEM software is sold by the software creator to a hardware manufacturer. For example, Microsoft will sell OEM versions of Windows and Office to companies like Dell or Gateway, at volume discounts. Dell and Gateway are then able to sell you the PC, complete with software, at a reasonable price. If you bought a PC from one of these companies, chances are that in the box, you found a handful of CD-ROMs with all kinds of software on them. No manuals, no instructions - just the CDs. These CDs are OEM software.

Sometimes, people and/or companies will not use the OEM software that came with their computer, and so they decide to sell the software, usually very inexpensively. If you need the software, it's a great way to save tens or hundreds of dollars off of the retail, boxed version you would buy in the store.

There ARE restrictions, however. Some OEM software comes with a restrictive license that says it can only be used with the hardware it originally came with. So, if you got an OEM version of CD-burning software, the license may restrict you to using the software ONLY with the CD-burner that came with your PC. These licenses, while restrictive, are also unusual.

There are two types of OEM when it comes to operating systems. The first is when a pre-built computer is purchased, there is an OEM disk that comes with the system, which can not be transferred to any other system, because that disk is designed to run only with the specific system components. The second type of OEM operating system is one that can be purchased, and that can be transferred to any other system, without the dependence on the systems components. The main difference between the two is that one is only meant for that specific system, and the other can be used on any system.

Academically priced software OR student editions is a software package offered to students and teachers at a substantially discounted price compared to the software's retail price. "Academic Discounts" or "Education Discounts" allow students and teachers alike the opportunity to own the software they need at much more affordable costs. The discount varies and can be as high as 80-90 %.

Academically priced software benefits the student by allowing them to become familiar with the technology prior to using it in a for-profit setting, and benefits the software company because students who use their software while they are in school tend to favor the same software they used in school, when they enter the working world.

Academically priced software is generally identical to the commercial version of the software, except that academically priced software is typically not licensed for commercial or for profit use (i.e. it can only be used in an academic setting). Engineering software will often print with a watermark around the border of a page, noting that the software is for "Education Use Only."

Academically priced software packages can come with little or no printed instruction manual, with the understanding that students using the software will be taught how to use it by professional instructors, and therefore have less need for a printed manual. This provides a cost savings for the manufacturer, who can then pass the savings on to the student. An electronic manual is typically provided in lieu of a printed manual.

Academically priced software is sometimes not eligible for upgrade and crossgrade discounts, though in many instances there are upgrades to the commercial version available as well.

Top 10 Linux financial tools

Many people don't realize the wealth of applications available for Linux — and that includes financial software. Jack Wallen introduces 10 Linux apps that will meet your financial needs, whether you just want a digital replacement for your checkbook or you're looking for a full-blown accounting package for your organization.

Many people don't realize the wealth of applications that are available for Linux. I am asked all the time about X and/or Y application on Windows and whether there's an equivalent on Linux. Most of the time the answer is yes.

The arena of finance is no exception. Plenty of outstanding financial applications are available for the Linux operating system. From personal finance to business finance, there is an application for nearly every need. Let's take a look at the top Linux financial applications.

#1: Gnucash

I start off with this application simply because it's my financial application of choice. Gnucash is released under the GPL so it is fully open sourced and is available for Linux, BSD, Solaris, OS X, and Windows. Gnucash features double-entry accounting, stock/bond/mutual fund accounts, small-business accounting, customer/vendor/job invoicing, QIF/OFX/HBCI Import/Transaction matching, reports/graphs, scheduled transactions, and financial calculations. Gnucash is incredibly easy to use and handles multiple accounts. Importing QIF files is simple, and entering transactions is intuitive. Gnucash can export to TXF format for tax preparation programs.

#2: KMyMoney

This is a finance application often included in KDE. KMyMoney has a user-interface similar to Quicken. In fact, those familiar with Quicken will find themselves right at home with KMyMoney. The biggest difference between KMyMoney and Quicken is that KMyMoney can't communicate directly with financial institutions. You can import QIF and Gnucash data, but the only format that can be exported is QIF. KMyMoney is also licensed under the GPL.

#3: Moneydance

Moneydance is proprietary software that's available for Linux, OS X, and Windows. Moneydance is one of the more fully featured financial applications available for Linux and includes such features as online banking and bill payment, budget management, scheduled/recurring payments, portfolio tracking, report generation, Quicken and Money data importation, encryption, and international support. Moneydance does require Java. Fortunately, there are versions of Moneydance that come prepackaged with Java, so those who are a bit weary of the task of installing Java (especially on a Linux machine) don't have to worry. The interface is very intuitive. Moneydance costs $39.99 per license. There is no corporate or individual licensing.

#4: Appgen MyBooks

If you're looking for commercial or accounting level software, this might be just what you need. Written for Linux (Linspire, to be exact), OS X, and Windows, this software package is double-entry and fully audited and conforms to the standards of GAAP (generally accepted accounting principles.) MyBooks can be purchased as a single-user license, two-user license, and 10-user license. It can be set up as a single system or as a client/server network system. A free trial version of MyBooks is available. This package also handles inventory (including perpetual inventory), service-based businesses, charting, statements, batch entries, ODBC, and vouchers.

#5: Nolapro

Don't let the free price tag of Nolapro fool you. This is for serious business. Although not open source, this package is free to use in any size environment and handles everything from inventory, accounts receivable, general ledger, POS, vendors, customers, B2B, online shopping cart, and payroll. Nolapro does require a database installation, but other than that, installation is simple. Nolapro is designed to be a network installation so the server can be accessed by multiple clients via browser. The license is unlimited users, unlimited companies, and unlimited books. For personal finance, you might want to skip Nolapro — its feature list will probably overwhelm you.

#6: Linux Business Accounting Systems BasicBooks

Linux Business Accounting Systems offers BasicBooks General Ledger for Linux. This application features complete financial reporting, support for all decimal-denominated currency, and unlimited transactions. BasicBooks uses the PostgreSQL database and is easy to use and learn. One of the nicest features of this package is that transaction databases can be loaded into spreadsheets for report creation. System requirements are low (Linux OS with GTK+ library and PostgreSQL; the program requires only 373K bytes). BasicBooks costs $20 per CPU and is available in binary package form (for RedHat, Fedora, SuSe, Ubuntu, Vector, and others), which includes the user reference manual.

#7: Quasar Accounting

This particular package is part of a full-fledged POS package that can be run as stand-alone accounting software. Quasar is not open source (although a purchased commercial license provides full access to the source code) and is available for Linux and Windows. Features include international support, outstanding GUI, simple data entry, error correction, backup/restore, online help, multi-company support, data import, mailing labels, user-level security, chart of accounts, statement printing, journal entries, customer quotes, sales orders, invoicing, multiple taxes, discounting, price management, accounts receivable, and cash reconciliation. You can download an evaluation version. A free single-computer edition is also available.

#8: SQL-Ledger

This is one of the oldest Linux accounting/ERP systems. SQL-Ledger is a double-entry accounting system that has an amazing list of features, such as accounts receivable, accounts payable, voucher system, general ledger, inventory control, billing, time cards, POS, check printing, purchase/sales orders, taxes, multi-user/company, audit control, SQL server backend, templates, customers, vendors, chart of accounts, and financial statements. SQL-Ledger is often considered the "best of" for Linux accounting. Obviously, this is another package that's far more than a financial tool. Someone looking for single-user financial software might want to look elsewhere. But if you need a small to midsize financial solution, you should look here first.

#9: Rapid Graphing Software for Technical Analysis of Stocks and Commodities

If you don't have or follow stocks/stock portfolios, you won't know what Rapid is for. Features include candlesticks, OBV, moving averages, Macd, Stochastics, RSI, Wilder DMI, Fibonacci, and Slope. Rapid will import text data and includes multiple journals that allow you to record your trades, graph trading performance and calculate totals for tax purposes. The Linux version of Rapid can print and share charts over the Net. Rapid is free to use and simple to install.

#10: Crossover Office

Those of you who can't live without Quicken or Money can always use Crossover Office and install either of those applications. You will have to pay for both pieces of software, but if you need Quicken's (or Money's) features, you're in luck.

Linux can handle nearly every financial need you can think of. Whether you're a single user wanting a simple digital replacement for your checkbook or a company looking for a full-blown accounting package, Linux has you covered.

Clean your computer

I have a dirty secret. I've never cleaned my computer. Sure, I've dusted my monitor, but I haven't taken off the cover or tried to reach the crumbs lurking inside my keyboard.

"Your computer could fry if you don't keep it clean," says Jonathon Millman, chief technology officer for Hooplah Interactive.

Dust clogs the vents behind your computer, which causes your CPU to heat up—and heat is the biggest cause of component failure in computers. Regular cleaning could save you costly maintenance fees down the road.

Keep your computer in tip-top shape by following Millman's guide to a spotless computer system.



Preparation

You'll need:
• screwdriver
• can of compressed air (available from computer dealers or office-supply stores)
• cotton swabs (do not use a cotton ball)
• rubbing alcohol
• paper towels or anti-static cloths
• water

Always turn your computer off before you begin and unplug all the cords.

Step 1: Inside the case

Using a screwdriver, remove the side of the case that's opposite your motherboard. Touch as little as possible inside the computer, keeping fingers away from cards and cords.

Blow air around all of the components and along the bottom of the case, keeping the nozzle four inches away from the machine. Blow air into the power supply box and into the fan (from the back of the case). Lastly, blow air into the floppy disk and CD drives. Wipe the inside of the cover with a lightly moistened cloth before replacing it.

Millman recommends doing this every three months if your case sits on the floor, if you have pets that shed, or if you smoke. Otherwise, every six to eight months is fine.

Step 2: Outside the case

Run a cotton swab dipped in rubbing alcohol around all of the openings on the back of your case. Give them one swipe with the damp end of the swab and one swipe with the dry end. Do this as often as you clean the inside of your computer.

Step 3: Keyboard

Turn the keyboard upside down and gently shake it. Most of the crumbs and dust will fall out. Take a can of compressed air and blow into and around the keys. Next, take a cotton swab and dip it in rubbing alcohol. It should be damp, but not wet. Run the cotton swab around the outside of the keys. Rub the tops of the keys. If you have a laptop, follow the same procedure but take extra care with your machine. Do this monthly.

Spills — If you have kids, you're worried about spills. If it happens, disconnect the keyboard immediately and flip it over. Blot the top with a paper towel, blow compressed air between the keys and leave it to air dry overnight. For laptops, liquid can easily penetrate the hard drive so turn the computer over immediately and leave it in that position until it dries.

Step 4: Mouse

Rub the top and bottom of your mouse with a paper towel dipped in rubbing alcohol. Open the back and remove the ball. Wash the ball with water and let it air dry. To clean inside the mouse, dip a cotton swab in rubbing alcohol and rub all of the components. Scrape hard-to-remove grime with your fingernail. Finally, blow air into the opening. Replace the ball and the cover. Do this monthly.

Step 5: Monitor

Moisten a paper towel or a soft, lint-free cloth with water. (You can also buy monitor cleaning products at computer-supply stores.) Don't spray liquid directly onto the screen—spray the cloth instead. Wipe the screen gently to remove dust and fingerprints. Never touch the back of the monitor.

For laptop screens, Millman suggests buying a special cleaning solution available at computer stores. Do this weekly.

Finally, make sure that everything is dry before you plug your computer back in.